Danshui Plant No.2 Essay

Background: Danshui was a contract manufacturer assembling electronic products in southern China. There were many manufacturers like Danshui in China assembling parts for the companies wishing to save labor costs. Apple contracted with Danshui to assemble 2.4 million iPhones in Plant No.2 with the expected high demand of this product in 2010. As a profit center, Plant No.2 was credited for each iPhone produced and shipped. The process of assembling was complex and required almost entirely based on handwork for more than 100 components. Danshui was confident of its workers to adapt the new tasks and extra workers could be hired and trained as needed. The iPhone 4 was the most successful product of Apple as more than 1.7 million units were sold in the first 3 days they were launched. However, the plant was operating at a loss because of the underproduction. Consequently, the controller of this plant considered preparing the new budget showing using a flexible budget system to identify what went wrong in their operations that contribute to the performance problems. Problems and issues: The plant has 2 big problems in terms of budgeting system and labor force. Firstly, they were in unfavorable performance by using standard budgeting system. They were unable to meet the Apple contract, which was shortage 10% from the 200,000 targeted units, resulting in the loss of $672,000 rather than the profit of $100,000. Actually, the plant was using the standard costing system to evaluate their performance, but it was not appropriate because the comparative quantities were different (180,000 and 200,000 units). That means the total standard costs would be overstated compared to the total actual costs. Consequently, the activities under the standard costing system were all overstated efficiency, leading to the unfavorable net income. Secondly, the lack of qualified labor force also contributed to this problem. As the assembly of iPhone 4 was extremely complex, this would be higher chances of errors as the assembly process was handled by different workers with different skills and working styles. This will indirectly cause a lot wastes in term of cost and time due to the carelessness and the lack of skill of the workers. The burden of the supervisors must be increased as they must learn before guiding the workers, who were almost semiskilled.  Although the plant had raised the wages to 30%, they still could not increase the number of labor force needed, which also contributed to the underproduction. On the other hand, as the production line was based on handwork, the damage of 1000 flash memories in installation was unavoidable. Thus, the actual output must be 181,000 units instead of 180,000 units in their report. The replacement of the wastage had increased the cost that had led to the unfavorable variance of $389,000. When the reckless jobs had been done, the workers must use the new tools and supplies, resulting in the increase of the production costs and cause an unfavorable performance. Recommendations: For the short term, I recommend Danshui to change from using the standard costing system to the flexible budget system for performance evaluation purpose. By using the flexible budget will help them to compare results with adjustable budget and the variance analysis will be more accurate. This system also proves the unfavorable performance caused by the variance from variable costs of $1,041,200, which can analyze and evaluate the weaknesses in controlling the variable cost which is flash memories, assembly and packaging expenses. For the long term period, they have to overcome the disadvantages from the labor forces. First of all, the plant should improve their salary policy. I recommend that they should motivate workers by setting a basic salary and offering bonus if they complete their jobs well. Secondly, the plant should provide professional training for labors. Through training, the labors can learn how to handle with care on the parts to avoid the wastage that will happen. This solution also assists managers to place the correct labor at the correct assembly parts to reduce the labor hours but still save the materials. Thirdly, the plant could hire more skilled supervisors who will able to response to the problems arises and know how to motivate the labor to achieve the goal.

Corrections Purpose and History Essay

The history of punishment is a unique one, since the dawn of man human kind has punished one another. Man did not merely throw someone in a chamber and let them contemplate their crimes such as we do in today’s society; rather, during those early times, punishment was harsh and swift. Criminals were not drawn through the litigation processes; instead, they were found immediately guilty of a crime and brought forth to be punished in an open forum, serving to the masses as an example of the consequences of crime. The early forms of punishment in Europe varied greatly but all forms were meant to inflict unimaginable pain upon the recipient, and it is from the European methods of imprisonment from which the U.S. drew inspiration. Punishment such as crucifixion, burning on pyres, guillotines, and gauntlets are but a few examples of what methods were utilized as early methods of punishment in early Europe. This illustrates the underlying ideology that punishment should be administer ed with two principles in mind, deterrence and retribution. Purpose and History Methods of imprisonment introduced near the turn of the eighteenth century England inspired and revolutionized the way we punish and house inmates. In England during the fifteenth and sixteenth century’s corporal punishment reined supreme. Public beatings were carried out in the streets with whips; beheadings and torture were the norm for serious crimes; and enslavement was common for petty offenders. During the seventeenth century in England and other European countries, imprisonment for lesser offenses started to occur but conditions were less than desirable or humane. These facilities were overcrowded, unsanitary, and, worst of all, gender/age neutral, which meant that male felons frequently took liberties with incarcerated women and children (â€Å"Incarcerated: The History of the Penitentiary from 1776-Present†, 1997). The American Colonies quickly embraced the idea of imprisonment, because of the religious freedoms English settlers sought when they colonized this nation. The Quakers were a religious group that settled in the northeast United States and they developed new laws to govern punishment and incarcerations that focused on prolonged imprisonment to serve as retribution for crimes committed. The Quakers belief system focused on of morality, peace, non-violence, and humanity. As such they showed mercy on offenders by allowing them to shed their anti-social behaviors through long term incarceration and a penance of hard labor. It is from this that modern the concept of reformation was established. Since this form of incarceration gained popularity, it has held onto two core principles: that a criminal can make restitutions for his/her crimes and that a convict can be eventually reintegrated back into society. The new form of punishment provided an alternative to the implemented punishments of yesteryear. Auburn versus Cherry Hill Pennsylvania System This reformation of how society punished criminals served as the foundation for new and competing theories on incarceration and punishment. In America around the early 1800’s, two prison systems were the dominant models of confinement: the Pennsylvania and the Auburn State. The first model was the Pennsylvania model, which was first used at Cherry Hill prison. This model used solitary confinement as its primary tool: convicts were perpetually detained without interactions with other individuals or time outside of confinement. The idea was that solitary confinement would lead to inward reflection and religious motivation and result in a penitent convict. In fact the word penitentiary actually comes from the Pennsylvania model of perpetual confinement because it had religious implications. At first, particularly in Cherry Hill, a Bible would be left in the solitary confinement cells in the hopes it would help prisoners repent. The second model was the Auburn State prison system, which supported the labor penance model. It operated under the assumption that hard, physical labor could not only serve as restitution but as a means of helping a convicted criminal reintegrate into society fully reformed. Often, prisoners worked during the day in total silence and would be hosed down them at night. A main criticism of the Auburn system was that prisoners were being used essentially as slave labor. Inmates were being farmed out to private business owners, who had contracts with the state, which in turn lined the pockets of the private businesses and cut costs for the state. As such, the Auburn model became the popular model, because states faced significantly less prison and prisoner care costs. Businesses paid a fee in order to use the prisoners and the prisoners acted as unpaid labor for the businesses. The state prisons pocketed the fees thus creating a revenue stream that could be used to support the prisons, rather than tapping into state funds, i.e. tax payer dollars (Colvin, 1997). Around the 1920’s to 1930’s many changes occurred due to the state of the economy and activists pressing the government for prison reform. One of the main changes occurred when Congress enacted the Hawes Cooper Act, which effectively stymied the sale of prison-made goods or the us e of prison-labor by making such goods subject to state punitive laws. This act was passed in no small part due to the jobs that were needed by good upstanding citizens—jobs that were being taken away during extremely tough financial times by cheap prison labor. Congress had the authority to pass such a law thanks to its power to control and tax interstate commerce. The Ashurst-Sumners Act was the final nail in the coffin by prohibiting transport companies from accepting prison-made products (McShane & Williams,1996). The changes that stemmed from the Depression helped shape the correctional system into the rehabilitation-oriented program we have today. Prisoners are now classified into the likelihood of rehabilitation and the type of crimes that were committed, and this determines what type of facility an offender is incarcerated. Since 1935, the government made it clear that prisons must separate prisoners on the basis of gender and age. Now, facilities specifically for juvenile offenders have been established and the handling procedures for yo unger offenders have been defined. Furthermore, there are programs to rehabilitate all types of offenders whether their needs are as simple as talking to someone during counseling sessions or educational opportunities. In some ways this system has been detrimental to corrections as a whole because it arguably results in overcrowding and a more lenient attitude: if you commit a crime then you will only have to contend with years off your life rather than hard labor and making reparations for the crime (Seiter, 2011). Over-population has resulted in more money taken from the taxpayers because if there are more people in the correctional system, more facilities and care are needed. Crime levels have dissipated over the years but not dramatically enough to really prove that this system is the true solution to our problems. Conclusion Modern principles of rehabilitation and reform have brought about the institution of facilities to incarcerate convicted individuals; these structures are called penitentiaries, jails, and prisons. Current prisons are more aptly concerned with long-term detention rather than a temporary housing prior to punishment like it was used as in the past. Today’s Prisons are a shell of the former institutions. Inmates in facilities today would never allow themselves to be used for labor outside prison walls it would be considered cruel and unusual punishment. For now the correctional system work, but soon it could be on the verge of collapse and any moment the flood gates could burst and the concept of rehabilitation could come to an end. References: Mcshane, M. D., & Williams, F. P. (1996). Encyclopedia of American Prisons (2nd ed.). Taylor and Francis. INCARCERATED: THE HISTORY OF THE PENITENTIARY FROM 1776- PRESENT. (1997). Retrieved from http://www.richeast.org/htwm/jails/Jails.html Colvin, M. (1997). Penitentiaries, Reformatories, and Chain Gangs: Social Theory and the History of Punishment in Nineteenth Century America. : St. Martin’s Press. Seiter, R. (2011). Corrections an Introduction (3rd ed.). Upper saddle Hall, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Aeration and Fermentation

Brewing is a fermentative process which converts carbohydrate rich raw materials into beer using yeast catalysts such as Baker’s yeast and species of Saccharomyces. Water quality and aeration conditions influence beer quality to a greater extent. Of these two, aeration plays a vital role. Aeration and Fermentation: Studies revealed that yeast cells propagation was doubled when cultured under prolonged aerobic conditions as compared to discontinuous aeration. Moreover, increase in cell growth was proportional to aeration volume, mainly due to the synthesis of sterols and unsaturated fatty acids which are important elements of the yeast cell membrane. Under batch fermentation, aeration affected 1st fermentation; nevertheless, successive fermentation was yeast strain dependent. Chul (2002) observed significant differences in levels of aroma compounds obtained with yeast propagated under different aerobic conditions. However aerobic conditions were not found to affect the levels of diacetyl.   According to Chul et al (2007), continuous aeration during yeast propagation directly influenced yeast metabolism, fermentation ability and beer quality. Microbial contamination risks: Certain groups of micro-organisms pose contamination risk in brewing. Most hazardous beer spoilage microbial agents are the species of Lactobacilli, Pedicocci and Micrococcus kristinae. Lactobacilli are gram-positive, facultative, anaerobic bacteria. Some species of Lactobacilli which are the common beer spoilage organisms are said to operate using homofermentative metabolism, by lowering the pH of fermentation process by producing lactic acid. These species are generally resistant to hop compounds. Lactobacillus brevis has the ability to ferment dextrins and starch and its contaminations in beer cause turbidity and super-attenuation (Vaughan et al. 2005). Pediococci are also homofermentative bacteria, which normally grow in pairs or tetrads, and are found in finished beers and wort fermentations. Presence of Pediococci leaves behind fermentable sugars in beer even after fermentation, thus causing ropiness. Micrococcus kristinae is an aerobic, gram-positive coccus occurring in tetrads or groups of four, forming pale cream to pale orange colonies. The primary habitat is the mammalian skin (Microbial glossary). Most of the strains are non-pathogens but some tend to be opportunistic pathogens. These species can grow in beer with significantly lower levels of alcohol and hop compounds and at pH values above 4.5 (Vaughan et al. 2005) and produce a fruity atypical aroma. Gram negative anaerobic bacteria such as Pectinatus cerevisiiphilus, Pectinatus frisingensis, Selenomonas lacticifex, Zymophilus raffinosivorans and Zymomonas mobilis are also potential beer spoilage microbes. Pectinatus species have found to greatly affect non-pasteurized beers rather than pasteurized ones. These anaerobic organisms ideally grow in packaged products between 15 and 40 °C with an optimum at 32 °C and at a pH of 4.5 (Vaughan et al. 2005). They are found to produce significant amounts of acetic acid, propionic acid and acetoin in wort and packaged beers. They also produce hydrogen sulphide and methyl mercaptan and cause considerable turbidity and an unpleasant ‘rotten egg’ odor in beer. Zymomonas mobilis is an organism widely used in the bio-ethanol synthesis. However, this species contaminates beer when it produces significantly higher levels of acetaldehyde and hydrogen sulphide. Gram negative aerobic bacteria such as Hafnia protea and Enterobacter cloacae also other agents which cause beer spoilage and are capable of surviving beer fermentation. Certain species of Saccharomyces are also organism causing beer contamination. Works Cited: Cheong, Chul.   Wackerbauer, Karl. and Kang, Soon AH. â€Å"Influence of aeration during propagation of pitching yeast on fermentation and beer flavor.† J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 17(2). 2007: 297 – 304. Microbial glossary – Environmental Diagnostic Laborarory, retrieved from http://www.pureaircontrols.com/glossary.html Vaughan, Anne. O’Sullivan, Tadhg.   and Sinderen, Douwe Van. â€Å"Enhancing the Microbiological Stability of Malt and Beer – A Review.† Publication no. G-2005-1316-408. The Institute of Brewing Distilling. 111 ( 4). 2005: 355 – 371.

Muslims and Arabs in American Society Coursework - 2

Muslims and Arabs in American Society - Coursework Example Steps have been taken to alter American perceptions about Muslim and Arab community in order to strengthen mutual interests and respect, and crack the code for understanding and communication with the Muslim and Arab groups. Now, by abandoning unpopular policies and with a difference in manner and style, focusing on the priorities of Muslim and Arab groups has become highly important for US public diplomacy department (Greco). Arabs and Muslims in America have been subjected to prejudice and hate crimes following the post 9/11 conflict between US and Muslim world. Mysteriousness, religious extremism, and cultural backwardness are the characteristics of orientalism, which are associated with American Muslims and Arabs (Jayne). Orientalism and prejudice together foment crime and hate between Muslims and Christian community in America. It should be understood on individual level that not all Muslims hold the same negative grudges against Americans, so they should be spared from hate cri mes targeted at American Muslim groups, and children should also be taught how to tolerate different religions and cultures.

Financial Report for Custom Snowboards Inc Essay

Financial Report for Custom Snowboards Inc - Essay Example At present the company is funded with $750 of debt to $903.8 of equity representing a debt to equity ratio of 0.83 or 83 cents of debt funding for every $1 of equity funding. Other considerations may consider the liquidity of the company, while many companies have a great business model and represent a good long term investment, many fail simply due to an inability to meet short term cash flow needs (Brealey et al 2006). At present, the liquidity position of Custom Snowboards Inc would appear to be healthy with a current ratio of 6.12 and an acid test of 3.91. The concern here on the behalf of the bank may be that Custom Snowboards Inc is not actually making best use of its current assets, rather than a concern over the liquidity of the company at this stage (Arnold, 2007). Further issues which the bank may consider is the long term prospects of the company, here the bank may choose to analyse both various measures of profitability as well as the underlying sales of the company which ultimately driver profitability. At present, the bank may highlight key concerns over both falling sales revenue and sharp falls in the operating and net profit margin. 2 In attempting to reduce perceived levels of risk, Custom Snowboard Inc may undertake a number of measures: Payback Debt – As has been noted, at present the company may be seen as having too high a level of liquid assets, indicating that the company is not using its assets in an efficient way. One way to reduce the perceived risk of the company would be to use such assets to reduce the amount of debt the company has. This would have a double effect on the company, on the one hand, the debt to equity ratio would reduce, making the company a less risky proposition for investors from a capital structure perspective. In addition, the liquidity ratios would be reduced to what the literature (Arnold, 2007) defines a more reasonable level. Overhead Reduction – One of the issues for Custom Snowboards Inc has been that while sales have fallen in recent years, fixed overheads have remanded the same thus resulting in a falling gross profit margin and presenting investors with a profitability risk. In seeking to address the problem, Custom Snowboards Inc should begin a program of overhead rationalisation. Here the company should seek to undertake a significant program of cost cutting with the aim of reducing overhead costs in line with the reduction in sales revenue seen. 3 In considering weather Custom Snowboards Inc is able to pay back the principal and loan it may be prudent to analyse a number of key ratios and tends. At present the company is paying an interest charge of $75,000 per year, if the company were to take on an additional $1m of debt at 6.75% this would add an additional cost of $67,500 PA to the company’s interest charges. Recent years have already seen key ratios declining with the net income ratio falling from 1.7% to 0.5%, and times interest earned reducing from 2 .91 to 1.53. It is believed that by increasing the amount of debt in Custom Snowboard Inc’s capital structure and thus adding greater costs of financing, these key ratios will be reduced further thus questioning whether the company can afford the additional interest charges and principal payments. In considering the net income ratio and times interest earned, it should already be noted that in year 14, Winter Sports outranked Custom Snowboard

Effects of Competitiveness on the UK Construction Industry Literature review

Effects of Competitiveness on the UK Construction Industry - Literature review Example The success of an organisation in a given nation highlights the important factors that the organisation controls when compared to other organisations (Jones & Saad 2003). The UK construction industry enjoys various competitive factors that enable it to succeed in the current market. Some of the competitive factors within the industry include the good leadership strategies, strategic advantage, market advantage, good marketing strategies; furthermore, they have knowledgeable personnel, production advantage, modern technology, finance advantage, good administration and risk management advantage (Morton 2007). Effects of competitiveness on the UK construction industry The U.K construction industry has more than 300, 000 firms, which employs over 2 million individuals to perform several roles (Morton 2007). The construction industry typifies the material and products used in construction, suppliers and the producers of the construction material, building services offered by contractors, providers and installers of the services, constructors, sub-constructors, professional advisors , construction clients and the different organisations that specialise in design and building (Morton 2007). The sector accounts for 5 percent of the UK Gross Value Added, which is similar to the values that France, Germany and U.S contributes towards their economy (David & Male 2001). The construction industry in UK specialises in the residential and nonresidential building as well as infrastructure. The industry has an advantage because the designers, civil engineers, contractors and product manufacturers are globally reputable because they devise high-tech solutions to varied projects within the construction industry. The industry has been undergoing a tremendous growth in the infrastructure and commercial construction sector (Cobbold & Lawrie 2001). The UK construction industry competes in an aggressive global market. The industry has high production level and its goods and services a re of high quality. This counteracts the competition from other industries worldwide. The construction industry adopts several approaches that enable it to increase its productivity and quality (Benati 2004). The UK construction industry embraces admirable leadership strategies because it has a long-term defined vision. This encourages the industry to meet the long-term developments. The leadership process also enables the industry to compete in the market because the industry gives room for success, letdown and learning. The UK construction industry maintains an appropriate learning environment because it allows people to learn from errors (Evers & Gerke 2008). This establishes a framework for the industry to improve on their developments; hence, reducing the possibility of failure. The leadership team within the industry highlights their expectations for them to monitor and identify whether they are competent enough to meet the set targets. Additionally, the leadership team devise s effective decision-making methods, which are vital in the building and maintenance of competitive advantage. The industry has a diverse management team with different talents; hence, maximizing their production. The leadership team has good communication skills, which enables them to build the long-term relationship and advance their operational productivity (Great

Mark Twain used the term Gilded Age for 1870 to 1890 Essay

Mark Twain used the term Gilded Age for 1870 to 1890 - Essay Example He has undertaken investigative process pertaining to the assessment of the different facets. He has assessed the social aspect of the American society, the political pillar and the institutions, their overall outlook, their affectivity, the presence and the parallel absence of institutions in United States of America. This also includes the comparison with the other parts of the world, notably France and Great Britain. All these have been put up in a satirical manner. Administratively the entire nation’s budget netted to a meager amount of 500 million dollars(twain).The expression Gilded state has been used in irony. The tracing of lexical meaning of the word Gilded is being pretentious and outwardly shinning and attractive. The same principle and phenomena has been presented by Mark Twain in his study and assessment of the American nation. Mark Twain was born in 1835 near Florida (Twain). He has referred to the American nation in a broader way as a Gild state. That is outwar dly and pretentiously attractive yet from inside it is marred with all kinds of miseries, troubles and issues within.On social front, the country and its people were fresh from a civil war that had plagued the roots of the nation and its society. It was fresh from the bleeding of over around 600,000 citizens. The people were segmented within with regard to the acceptance for one another. The Southern part was gulfed from the other parts of the country and had little feeling of benevolence for one another.

FMC Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

FMC Corporation - Essay Example While Aberdeen has the mindset of a modern, intelligent organization seeking to enhance continuous learning opportunities for its employees so that they too grow flexibly with the ever-changing needs of the market, Green River persists in a strictly role-based model offering little room for career enhancement, and instead, plenty of room for employee discontent. In such a scenario, redesigning job descriptions can go a long way in boosting employee motivation. Each employee has areas of strength and weakness; it is apparent that Green River's hierarchical structure doesn't encourage constructive dialogue so needed to enable people to break away from hesitations, and talk freely about their favorite interests concerning the job. An organization's woes begin when a person is stuck at the wrong role, and can't facilitate enough interaction to undergo a change. E.g. an employee endowed with a flair for marketing will find a technical role nothing short of drudgery, and vice versa. It is very important for Green River to recognize these symptoms before it is too late. The only way it can replicate the success of its role model, Aberdeen, is by carrying out an unbiased feedback among all employees concerning their career interests. The more number of employees it can place in the right role, the more it has secured an environment in which "change " is possible. Performance appraisal Aberdeen scores high on performance because of its structure, which incorporates a cross-functional team to multiply creativity, innovation and overall efficiency. In an apparently transparent environment, performance indices are easier to measure. In a nutshell, people feel motivated to work harder when they are assured that they would be rewarded for their endeavors through an easy-to-follow, responsive mechanism. This doesn't seem to be the case with the Wyoming unit, which clings to a bureaucratic system that chokes enterprise and funnels individual aspiration. Archer North & Associates describe performance appraisal as an ancient art, as the "only process available to achieve fair, decent and consistent outcomes (homepage)." The website goes on to elucidate the two contrasting schools of thought regarding rewards and incentives; while rewarding a good employee for decent output seems fair at first glance, often reviewers can be judgmental and opinionated, and the experience can be "punitive" and "harrowing" for the employee in case of negative appraisal. Another area of concern is the fact that it is often the case that the appraiser and appraisee know each other well because of frequent social interactions; so any negative feedback can cause "resentment and morale damage, leading to soured relationships and productivity decline" (Archer&North homepage). The bottomline is; any appraisal system put in place must be unbiased, acceptable to all, and highly sensitive in character. Pay Aberdeen being the more profitable

Similarities and differences between action research and audit Essay

Similarities and differences between action research and audit - Essay Example Concerning functions and applications, they have their distinct objectives, techniques and responsibilities.An interesting fact concerning these two disciplines is that action research of audit improves auditing, and auditing of action research helps to remove the dross and improve the quality of the research. (CAFWAA).From immemorial times monarchs and other rulers have rewarded groups and individuals for research and development purposes. The wise rulers and elders possessed the gracious disposition which caused them to provide rewards and incentives to encourage discoveries, inventions, and improvements for the betterment of human life and society.Men and women convinced in the belief that there were better ways of doing things immersed themselves in understanding systems and theories, and harnessed nature and elements to refine methods and structures. They zealously pursued their goals, at times against heavy odds, bequeathing their posterity a rich legacy of healthier and happie r living conditions. (Action Research).Action Research is based on clear vision, mission and guiding principles seeking to reveal the truth about any subject, thesis or situation. It also undertakes tasks of finding ways and means on improving existing systems and methodologies. It does so by meticulously going through existing systems and technologies, scrutinizing their efficacy, relevance and alternatives, and conducting experiments with new hypotheses and integrations. (What is Action Research) Audit Audit is the statutory study, scrutiny and verification of financial statements and management systems maintained by institutions, corporations and individuals. It provides the status and track record of the entity as required by law for general information or specific purposes like diversifications and investment strategies. Audit is done internally and by external professionals. (Audit, Credit Suisse). Audit helps to shape and reshape policies and procedures and improve efficiency and output. It refurbishes the entire organization to provide better quality and services. (Acacia Research Corporation). Auditing is highly responsible and demanding task. It is also time consuming and meticulous. It is a teamwork pursuance endowed with highly skilled technical expertise and adept at critical evaluations of diverse disciplines. It follows the highest order of professional and statutory standards and ethics. (Audit). Similarities between Action Research and Audit One ostentatious similarity between action research and audit is that both rely on data and facts to serve their aims and objectives. They base their conclusions on fundamental principles and sound judgment. They source their data and methodologies from well-established, credible sources only. Their similarities also match in the highly professional and all-pervasive approach to their area of activities. Action research is based on examination and improvement wherever possible of relevant, well-documented data and facts. Audit is based on the examination of financial statements made up of facts and figures, and their certification and approval along with suggestions for improvements and rectifications. Both action research and auditing is done by experienced, well-qualified, and highly skilled professionals. (Catherine Wylie). Differences between Action Research and Audit Action research is an age old phenomena which has existed for a very long time. Audit is comparatively new and came

Atmospheric and Water Quality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Atmospheric and Water Quality - Essay Example Moreover, it also included the effects of ground reflection on the plume. (Sutton, 1947) The basis for this model and various other models is the Generalized Dispersion Equation for A Continuous Point Source Plume. (Beychok, 2005) This equation is: Where: is the cross wind dispersion parameter given as: is the vertical dispersion parameter given as: Where is the vertical dispersion with no reflection, is the vertical dispersion for reflection from the ground, is the vertical dispersion for reflection from an inversion aloft and are given as: is the concentration of emissions given in g/m3 at any given receptor that is located at meters downwind of the emission source, meters crosswind from the emission plume centreline and meters above the level of the ground. is the emission rate of the source pollutant given in g/s is the horizontal wind velocity along the plume’s centreline given in m/s is the height of the emission plume’s centreline above the ground given in m is t he vertical standard deviation of the emission’s distribution given in m is the horizontal standard deviation of the emission’s distribution given in m is the height of the inversion aloft’s bottom from the ground The equation presented above compensates for upward reflection from ground as well as for downward reflection from the bottom of any inversion lids present within the atmosphere. The exponential terms in g3 converge rapidly and in most circumstances assuming m as 1, 2 and 3 provide acceptable solutions. as well as are representative functions of atmospheric stability and delineate the turbulence of the ambient atmosphere and of the downwind distance to the particular receptor. Within this arrangement, the most important variables are the degree of atmospheric turbulence and the height of the emission source. Generally dispersion is directly related to the turbulence. Q2. a. Describe the natural chemical reactions by which stratospheric ozone is created and destroyed. [10 marks] Ozone is produced in the atmosphere as the photochemical decomposition of oxygen molecules occurs. (Science Fun, 2011) As diatomic oxygen absorbs ultra violet radiation with wavelengths of less than 240 nm it tends to disintegrate as: O2 ? 2O* (reaction 1) The resulting free oxygen atoms combine with more oxygen molecules to generate ozone as below: O + O2 ? O3 Another mechanism is when ozone molecules decompose when treated with ultraviolet radiation with a wavelength of less than 290 nm. The reaction is as under: O3 ? O2 + O* (reaction 2) b. Explain the link that is believed to exist between pollution and ozone layer depletion. [10 marks] Myriad chemicals released into the air are known to react with ozone causing its depletion. The greatest danger stems from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are disintegrated by the action of ultraviolet light as below: CFCl3 + hv ? CFCl2 + Cl* (reaction 1) The activated chlorine atom now reacts with an ozone molecule to give off oxygen and chlorine oxide as under: Cl + O3 ? ClO + O2 (reaction 2) The chlorine oxide further promotes disintegration of ozone as under: ClO + O3 ? Cl* + 2O2 (reaction 3) This reaction tends to persist as reactions 2 and 3 proliferate and cause further ozone molecules to disintegrate into oxygen molecules. The net reaction for reactions 1, 2 and 3 becomes:

C P Snow and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Essay Example for Free

C P Snow and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Essay The scientist and the literary intellectual represent two cultures that are drifting apart from each other to such an extent that each is becoming increasing ignorant of and alien to the other, and because they must represent a body of knowledge as a whole, the consequence is that, though specialization, both the scientist and the intellectual are becoming effectively ignorant. Analysis: Though C P Snow claims to be speaking from a common ground between the two cultures that he envisages, I would argue that he is squarely placed in the scientific camp, and is by no means an intellectual. The manner in which he describes the rift between the two cultures has a distinct whiff of â€Å"shallow optimism† about it, which is the intellectual trait of the scientist. He advocates a simple dialogue between the two camps, which is very much reminiscent of Enlightenment thinking, which, before the advent of modern science, maintained that scientific education was the key to overcoming all social ills, and dialogue is but a means to educate each other. Snow is right in thinking that the two camps had grown apart unawares, and that at one time the cultured man endeavored to keep abreast of knowledge as a whole. But a fundamental point seems to escape him, and that is that modern science entails specialization, and neither does he suspect that it could be the root of the problem. While he acknowledges the existence of specialization in science, he tries to make out that it need not be divisive. His advocacy is of a holistic understanding, and on the strength of this plea he wants to effect a negotiation between the two camps. â€Å"Don’t carry your specializations too far,† he seems to be saying to both the scientists and the intellectuals, â€Å"because both the arts and the sciences are important, and one is in danger of becoming ignorant if one loses complete touch with any one of them. † The propositional content of his plea is correct, but the mistake is to sound it on the platform of modern science, which is divisive in its fundamental aspect. If one is committed to the scientific outlook one must live with specialization. We can take his example about the literary intellectual knowing the second law of thermodynamics as a testing point. He thinks that literary intellectual should at least know this law, which is accepted among physicists as being fundamentally significant. The equivalent feat of for a physicist would be of having read a play by Shakespeare, he suggests. But concentrating on the first point, why should one know the second law of thermodynamics if one will never question its validity? Science functions by constant questioning, and no scientist is ever trained to carry absolute dictates about with him. A literary intellectual may come to it in two ways. He may absorb it as in inviolable dictate, in which case it would not be science at all. Or he may come to it with the proper outlook of the scientist, which is the questioning one. If on the second trajectory, he may either be captivated by the question, or he may deem it not worth his while. If he is captivated, and he remains honest to his intellectual proclivities, then he cannot but pursue the question further, to the detriment of usual literary occupation. But it is more likely that he deems it not worth his while, in which case he returns to the field in which he is proficient and interested. And in due course, through neglect, he forgets how to state the scientific principle at all. If the last is the most natural and likeliest outcome, there is little point in pushing the second law of thermodynamics to the literary man. He has arrived at the status quo of not knowing the law at all, because that is the most natural state of affairs for him. In his situation he has better things to occupy himself with. For Snow to suggest that he ought to know the second law smacks of the arrogance of science, which is an arrogance rooted in naive optimism. Then again, a scientist should only be expected to enjoy a performance of Shakespeare, but certainly not to analyze it. Literary understanding calls for a profound understanding of human nature, which is certainly not part of the equipment of the scientist, who is trained to detect only empirical evidence. To tell a scientist to analyze King Lear would only confuse him, and if he tried too hard it would blunt his scientific perception. Snow would be better advised to consider the underlying philosophy of science, rather than external practice of the separate disciplines. It is a tacit understanding among members of the scientific society (of which literary intellectual are a part) that each practice his own specialization. Only the fruits are to be enjoyed by all, and this is the true egalitarian dimension of atomized science. The notion of â€Å"progress† comes from the understanding that the fruits of specialization confer on all, and it is this notion of progress that binds all members of scientific society. In its original conception modern science was defined as an egalitarianism of knowledge, and apparent loss of this is what Snow is lamenting. But such egalitarianism has not disappeared; it has only become impractical for a single person to keep up with the expanding body of knowledge. But more important than knowledge sharing is the philosophy that underpins it, and this philosophy still unites the particle physicist and the Shakespeare man. In calling for a new, and strained, egalitarianism of knowledge, Snow is only betraying his naivete of the world, which is the characteristic naivete of the scientist daring to speak on the humanities. Works Cited Snow, Charles Percy. The Two Cultures. Ed. Stefan Collini. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

History of Economics Essay Example for Free

History of Economics Essay Economics is the constituent of social sciences which studies the economy and its elements. The main elements of economics are production, distribution, and the consumption of certain goods and services. And its main objective is to allocate the scarce resources effectively and efficiently. Scarcity refers to the economic concept that reflects that the resources are insufficient to full fill the wants and needs of all the people. In this paper the concepts of surplus and its effects on the economy would be discussed. Surplus is the situation in which an excess of something is achieved. For example the value or the amount provided after the requirement for something is satisfied or the remainder of particular thing after the purpose is met (Danielson, 1994). The industrial take off in the 18th century was considered due to the need which was developed to produce in excess. The industrial revolution which was brought forward was the result of an influence made by the capitalists regarding the generation of sufficient surplus as the source. This idea developed the concept of producing more than one requires. Europe is considered as the leader for the revolution as it had the sufficient supply of resources to cope up with the increasing demand for the growing industries. The main purpose of developing industries was to produce and cope of with the demands of product by the people. Previously there was no concept of producing more than one required to satisfy the need for one self only. But as the people started to become more and more liberal the concept of producing more than required was built. Industries with there extensive research and resources started developing goods and services to gain more profits and to satisfy the needs and wants of the prospects. This reflects the role of surplus in the development of industries in the late 18th and the 19th century, which came out to be the main cause for the change in the methodology used previously for production. (Danielson, 1994) Francois Quesnay is another great scholar known to have made contributions in the economic studies in the era before the eighteenth century. He published the Economic Table which aided in explaining the working of the economy, and which is considered as one of the first attempts made to the economic thought. In the table he described three classes, landowners, farmers, and the sterile class which he assumed consumed everything the farmers produced with no left over surplus. Quesnay assumed that it was only the farmers that could produce a surplus, and which could be used in the next year to produce more and aid in growth, and he emphasized more on the agricultural sector than the manufacturing sector which has not yet developed. This point of view of Quesnay differed from that of Smith in regards to a surplus in the economy (Kurz Salvadori, 1997). Proceeding to the history of economics, the person who is known as the father of modern economics was Adam Smith. The concept of the well being of the society and the economy by the description made upon rational self-interests. Smith addressed upon bringing nation’s prosperity through the means of improvement in the methods of production in his book. He claimed that the surplus in production could be in general and not only in the agricultural sector. And to conceive higher profits it is required by the industries to gain surplus as profit is to be considered as the second component of it. For which achieving surplus would result in recovering cost effectively (Kurz Salvadori, 1997). Jean-Baptiste Say was a French business man and an economist in the early eighteenth century. He was the originator of the Say’s Law which describes that the supply creates its own demand, and the supply is not influenced by demand and supported the free trade and competition, and the lifting of restraints levied on the businesses. Say emphasized upon the concept that the supply creates its own demand, because he believed that the person’s ability to demand products is dependent on his disposable income which he generates from his own attributes in production. His point of view regarding surplus was similar to of Adam Smith in context that he accepted the concept that the surplus could be achieved in any product. Insufficient demand could be due to a misdirected production and result in an excess of a product in the market known as surplus. This perception of Say made his views different from that of Smith and Quesnay. Wood Kates, 2000) Proceeding to the conclusion to the different view presented by the three scholars Francois Quesnay, Adam Smith and Jean-Baptiste Say, it can be deduced that all had different perspectives according to their era with reference to surplus. Quesnay had a different set of mind and assumed his theories based upon the industries present at his time. Smith and Say were present in the similar time but had different aspects surrounding them. For which their theories differed from each other, but had similarities, because of being situated in identical time period.

Public Debt And Its Political Implications Economics Essay

Public Debt And Its Political Implications Economics Essay The debt limit or so called debt ceiling is the total sum of money that the US government is allowed to borrow in order to cover the existing expenditures: national defense, interest on the national debt, Medicaid and Medicare benefits and other expenditures. The debt limit enables the government to cover the spending that was negotiated between Congresses and Presidents in the past. Nevertheless, it does not apply for new, unbudgeted expenditures. If the debt ceiling limits the government to pay for expenditures that are legal obligations (e.g. interest on the national debt, government employee wages, etc.), the debt ceiling can lead to the default of the US (US Department of the Treasury, 2012). The U.S. Debt-Ceiling Crisis and the Budget Control Act of 2011 In May 2011, the Treasury declared that the debt ceiling of US $14.29 trillion had been reached, but that extraordinary measures could prevent a default and keep government operational. For several months after this announcement, the debt ceiling was in the center of a political battle between the Republicans, who controlled the House of Representatives since the 2010 elections, and President Obama and the Democrats who controlled the Senate. The Republicans insisted on revenue increases and spending cuts as condition for their approval of an increase in the debt ceiling. Both parties could not come to a compromise and by the end of July, the countrys default approached. Finally, an agreement between President Obama and Congressional leaders was reached by the night of July 31, 2011 (Eells, 2013). On August 2, 2011, President Obama signed the Budget Control Act (BCA) that raised the debt ceiling and thus averted the looming, first-ever US government default. The Budget Control Act authorized the increase of the debt limit in three installments. First, the President can require the immediate increase of the debt limit by US $400 billion. Second, the debt limit can be increased by additional US $500 billion, if a joint resolution of disapproval is not enacted. Thirdly, the President can require an additional amount between US$1.2 trillion and US $1.5 trillion that is also the subject to congressional disapproval (Heniff et al., 2011). The first two debt increases, totaling US $900 billion, should be compensated by reductions in future federal spending. The BCA also determined caps on annual expenditures over the following ten years. Estimates on federal spending reductions by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) totaled US$917 billion. For the years 2012 and 2013, the limits on security and non-security spending are separate. For the eight years thereafter, the spending cap will be effective on a single discretionary category (Heniff et al., 2011). Another part of the BCA was the establishment of a Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction. This Committee is tasked with proposing means to reduce the federal deficit by at least US $1.5 trillion over the next ten years. As a result, the BCA provides at least one dollar of spending cuts for one dollar in debt ceiling raise (Heniff et al., 2011). However, if the Joint Committee fails to produce spending cuts of at least US $1.2 trillion, then the President will be authorized to increase the debt ceiling by US $1.2 trillion that need to be compensated by a combination of the spending cuts nevertheless produced by the Joint Committee and across-the-board spending cuts, including military expenditures, education, transportation, Medicare etc. (GAO, 2012). The political battle between Republicans and Democrats had several negative consequences. The delays in raising the debt limit in 2011 resulted in additional borrowing costs for the Treasury of about US $1.3 billion only in the fiscal year 2011, which do not include the multiyear effects on potentially increased interest expenses for Treasury securities of future issues. Other challenges for the Treasury in managing the federal debt under the effects of these delays were the complexity, the time spent and the technical issues that arose before the staff. Moreover, the Treasurys employees had to focus on extraordinary actions instead of focusing on its important debt and cash management responsibilities and staff development (GAO, 2012). The US debt passed the 100%-of-GDP mark after the governments debt ceiling was increased. The new borrowing enlarged the US debt to US$14.58 trillion, surpassing the US $14.53 trillion size of the U.S. economy in the year 2010 and moving the USA into a fiscal situation similar to countries whose public debt is higher than their annual gross domestic product: Japan (229%), Greece (152%), Italy (120%), Ireland (114%) and Iceland (103%). The last time the U.S. debt exceeded GDP was in 1947 after World War II and the deficit was due to extraordinary war spending (Money News, 2011). As a result of the debt increase, Standard Poors (SP) downgraded its USA long-term sovereign credit rating from AAA to AA+ on August 5, 2011. The lowering of the long-term sovereign credit rating by SP reflects the rating agencys believe that the the effectiveness, stability, and predictability of American policymaking and political institutions have weakened at a time of ongoing fiscal and economic challenges to a degree more than was envisioned when agency assigned a negative outlook to the rating on April 18, 2011 (Swann et al., 2011). SP believed that the fiscal consolidation plan that was agreed by Congress and the President was not sufficient to stabilize the general government debt burden by 2015. Additionally, the political positions of Republicans and Democrats were still far apart and the two parties only agreed on minor savings in discretionary expenditures. The Select Committee had to provide more comprehensive solutions. The political disputes diminished the governments capability to manage public finances and distracted attention from the ultimate goals of a more balanced budget and improvement in economic growth. SPs prospect on the long-term rating is unfavorable. The agency can even decrease the long-term rating to AA, if, for instance, the US government cuts its spending less than was negotiated or the new arising fiscal burdens over the next two year period. The other two major rating agencies, Moodys and Fitch, kept their top credit ratings, although they pointed out that downgrades could follow if the US government fails to implement debt reduction measures or an economic slowdown happened (Detrixhe, 2011). After raising the debt limit to US $15.2 trillion in August 2011, Congress increased the debt limit to US $16.394 trillion in January 2012. By the end of August 2012, the amount of debt reached US $15.977 trillion, which is approximately US $417 billion below the debt limit. As the government borrows roughly between US $100 billion and US $125 billion a month, the debt was estimated to hit the limit in December 2012 (Sahadi, 2012). By December 31, 2012, the USA reached its debt ceiling, but the Treasury declared that it can pay outstanding debt obligations and other bills for the next two months. This means that a new political battle, between Congress and the White House, for another increase in the debt ceiling will start in the near future. Effects of the US government shutdowns in 1995-1996 In 2011, the US government was close to defaulting on its public debt. The potential negative consequences of a default are more severe than that of a shutdown. Nevertheless, recent shutdowns can give an example of potential harmful effects of such fiscal issues on the public and economy. In history, the US government has experienced several shutdowns (Figure XY) that occurred when Congress fails to adjust funding for the current fiscal obligations. In this situation the government can no longer borrow funds, but the federal government can continue to operate, given the Treasury has the opportunity to generate additional revenues or to implement special measures. Nevertheless, the continuing incapability to borrow would result in a default (Masters, 2013). Figure XY. Appropriations Funding Gaps: Fiscal Years 1977-1998 Fiscal Year Date gap Commenced   Full day(s)   of gaps Date gap terminated   1977 Thursday 09-30-76 10 Monday 10-11-76 1978 Friday 09-30-77 12 Thursday 10-13-17 Monday 10-31-77 8 Wednesday 11-09-77 Wednesday 11-30-77 8 Friday 12-09-77 1979 Saturday 09-30-78 17 Wednesday 10-18-78 1980 Sunday 09-30-79 11 Friday 10-12-79 1982 Friday 11-20-81 2 Monday 11-23-81 1983 Thursday 9-30-82 1 Saturday 10-2-82 Friday 12-17-82 3 Tuesday 12-21-82 1984 Thursday 11-10-83 3 Monday 11-14-83 1985 Sunday 9-30-84 2 Wednesday 10-3-84 Wednesday 10-3-84 1 Friday 10-5-84 1987 Thursday 10-16-86 1 Saturday 10-18-86 1988 Friday 12-18-87 1 Sunday 12-20-87 1991 Friday 10-5-90 3 Tuesday 10-9-90 1996 Monday 11-13-95 5 Sunday 11-19-95 Friday 12-15-95 21 Saturday 1-6-96 Figure : Appropriations Funding Gaps (Source: U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service) The longest US government shutdown was a shutdown in the years 1995-1996. The U.S. government was shut down for 21 days between the December 16, 1995 and January 6th, 1996 due to the budgetary mismatches between Democratic President Bill Clinton and Republican Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich. In 1995, Clinton denied to cut steeply Medicaid, Medicare and other non-defense expenditures for the 1996 budget. Gingrich responded with the threat that Congress would not approve the increase in the debt ceiling. This would lead the USA to default on its outstanding debt. The first shutdown lasted five days from November 13 until 19 when both parties made an agreement to balance the budget in seven years period. However, the White House and Congress could not agree how this procedure would be accomplished resulting in the second US shutdown for 21 days. Negotiations between the President and Congress over the next 21 days resulted in the agreed seven-year balanced budget plan. The plan cons isted of the tax increases and the little spending cuts (Fiscal Politics Policy from 1970s to the Present). Gressle (1999) showed the effects of the US government shutdown on the public and economy. The first and the second shutdowns in 1995-1996 years resulted in the furlough of an estimated 800000 and 284000 federal employees respectively. The second shutdown had vast effects on all sectors of the economy. A good example is the health care sector where new patients were not accepted into National Institute of Health (HIN) Clinical Center and the hotline calls to HIN regarding health problems were not answered. Around 20000-30000 applicants for US visa were not served each day resulting in million dollar losses for airlines and tourist industries. The closure of 368 National Parks led to the loss of 7 million visitors and US$14.2 million per day in tourism income by locals. After the 1995-1996 shutdowns, President Clinton improved his image (Lader, 2008). The majority of Americans understood that both shutdowns were due to the Republican obstinacy. Nevertheless, the shutdowns in 1995-1996 showed the aftermaths of divided government and the shift of the political policy to the rightwing. Fiscal Cliff There are a lot of expressions for the issue often called fiscal cliff: fiscal slope, austerity crisis or fiscal obstacle course. However, all of them describe the same process, particularly, the automatic tax increases and spending cuts that take effect on January 1, 2013. However, the first person who popularized the term fiscal cliff was the chairman of the Federal Reserve, Ben Bernanke. The chairman used this expression in a speech to a congressional committee in February 2012 in reference to a combination of spending cuts and tax increases set for January 1, 2013. Afterwards, the phrase was used widespread (Geoghegan, 2012). The majority of analysts predict that the implementation of the tax and spending cuts on January 1, 2013 will have no significant influence on the economy as a whole in the short run. At the same time, the long-term effects of these measures would be tremendous. If a deal can not be reached by the White House and Congress, it might have uncertain effects on the economy such as a market panic, a drop in consumer spending, a decrease in business investments, etc. The Congressional Budget Office calculated that the budget deficit would decrease by US $0.5 trillion from 2012 to 2013 and the economy would slow down due to a resulting recession. Almost all Americans would experience a rise of their tax bills with the estimated increase at US $3500 and an after-tax income decline by 6.2% for the average family (Lowrey, 2012). On Tuesday January 1, 2013, Congress approved a deal to end the long partisan dispute over the fiscal cliff. The main changes that were set were the end of last years temporary payroll tax cuts (resulting in a 2% tax increase for workers), the end of certain tax breaks for businesses, shifts in the alternative minimum tax that would take a larger bite, a rollback of the Bush tax cuts from 2001-2003, and the beginning of taxes related to President Obamas health care law. At the same time, the spending cuts agreed upon as part of the debt ceiling deal of 2011 will begin to go into effect (Kenny, 2013). The agreement leads to the increase of the tax rate from 35% to 39.6 % for single persons who earn US $400000 and for couples with an income above US $450000 per year. Americans should also pay higher taxes on dividends and capital gains with the tax rate rising from 15% to 20%. Also, the tax for estates with a value above US$5 million will be taxed by 40% (previous rate 35%), but Republicans succeeded in indexing the threshold of US $5 million to inflation and thus smoothing the effects of the estate tax for wealthy Americans (Ungar, 2013). Among other changes were the extension of an additional year of unemployment benefits for nearly 2 million Americans, the doctor fix related to Medicare and tax credits for college tuition that were extended for another five years (Ungar, 2013). The agreement prevents a significant increase of income tax for around 100 million American families that earn less than US $250000 annually. However, the 2% payroll tax cut, that was originally part of the 2009 stimulus package, will expire (Montgomery and Helderman, 2013). The above measures will prevent the severe economic downturn that could happen in case of going over the fiscal cliff. President Obama pointed out in his brief statement that the new measures would produce US $620 billion in new tax revenues (Montgomery and Helderman, 2013). In conclusion, the new measures that were set to avoid the fiscal cliff were not the ultimate goal of neither Republicans nor Democrats. Republicans are not satisfied with the tax increases and the lack of spending reductions, while Democrats complain about the provisions regarding estates. It seems that the political dispute will continue in the near future and the agreement signed on December 31, 2012 was just a short-term fix to avoid the fiscal cliff. Foreign Holdings of US Public Debt and its Political Implications A crucial point in analyzing the current situation of US public debt and its political implications is the detailed understanding of foreign holdings. As of July 2012 (most recent data), foreign countries owned a total of US dollar 5.4 trillion of U.S. debt, which is approximately 34% of total debt outstanding of US dollar 15.9 trillion. The three largest single foreign holders are the central banks of China, Japan and Brazil. Comparing the situation in July 2012 with the state in July 2002, one can see that the proportion of foreign holdings in US public debt outstanding has grown from approximately 19% to 34% (Treasury Direct, 2012). Figure XY shows that as of July 2012, China is the largest single holder of US public debt with a share of approximately 7.2% followed by Japan with a corresponding share of about 7.0% (US Department of the Treasury, 2012). Figure : Foreign Holdings of US Public Debt (Source: Treasury Direct, 2012 U.S. Department of the Treasury, 2012) Given its low savings rate, the US economy is strongly dependent on foreign capital inflows from countries with high savings rates (for example China  [1]  ) to meet its domestic investment needs and to fund the federal budget deficit. Important to understand is that the willingness of foreign countries to invest in the US economy and to purchase US public debt has helped to keep US real interest rates relatively low in the past, which until recently, contributed to a great extent to a fast US economic growth and enabled the country to consume more that it produces for a long time. Some renowned economists also argue that the US dependency on foreign savings was a contributing factor to the US subprime crisis and the subsequent global financial crisis. However, the size and the recent growth of US public debt have raised concerns about the willingness of foreign countries to continue to invest in US public debt securities. For example, some Chinese analysts claimed that the gover nment should diversify its reserves away from US dollar assets into assets of other currencies. An important short-term political implication of Chinas large holdings in US public debt is that, if China might suddenly decide to sell a large share of its holdings, this would induce other foreign investors to sell off their holdings as well, which could dramatically destabilize the US economy. Possible consequences can be the depreciation of the US dollar as its supply on foreign exchange markets increased and a large increase in US interest rates as a crucial source of funding for investments and the budget deficit is withdrawn from financial markets (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). Therefore, China seems currently able to destabilize the US economy through the sale of a large share of its US debt holdings, which can be seen as a financial weapon (Sandbrook, 2012). In addition, in the long run, if China reduces its US securities, the US would need to replace it with other foreign or domestic investors to fill in the gap. Those investors would probably have to be acquired through higher interest rates compared to those of today. Increased interest rates would cause a fall in all kinds of interest-sensitive spending. The reducing of Chinese Treasury holdings would all else equal cause the foreign demand for US assets do decline, which would then lead to a dollar depreciation (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). All in all, given a large reduction in Chinas holdings of US public debt, the impact on the US economy would still be dependent on whether this reduction takes place gradually or suddenly. Some US policymakers also argue that Chinas large holdings of US public debt give it leverage over the United States on economic and noneconomic issues. An illustrative example of this concern is Ding Gang, an editor of Chinas Peoples Daily  [2]  , who wrote in an editorial in August 2011 that the Peoples Republic of China should create a direct link between the amount of US Treasury holdings with the US arms sales to Taiwan. Gang states Now is the time for China to use its financial weapon to teach the United States a lesson if it moves forward with a plan to sale arms to Taiwan. In fact, China has never wanted to use its holdings of U.S. debt as a weapon. It is the United States that is forcing it to do so. [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] China has no choice but to use it as a weapon to defend itself when facing threats to Chinas sovereignty (Gang, 2011). Altogether, Chinas holdings in US public debt can be seen as a strong instrument to put pressure on the United States with regards to poli tical disputes between the two countries. As a result, the growing dependency of the US on China to purchase US Treasury securities to fund the countrys budget deficit has become a major concern to many US policymakers (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). However, the probability that China would suddenly reduce its holdings of US public debt is highly questionable because of the fact that doing so could potentially have a significant negative impact on the Chinese economy as well. The important causality which takes away Chinas incentive to sell is the fact that any Chinese attempt to sell a large portion of its US debt holdings could, on the one hand, dramatically reduce the value of its remaining holdings in international markets. On the other hand, a negative demand shock in the United States would also dramatically reduce US demand for Chinese exports, either through an appreciation of the Chinese Yuan against the US Dollar or a reduction in the US economic growth (especially if other foreign investors sell their US asset holdings as well and the United States are forced to raise interest rates in response) (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). This is especially severe because of the fact that China was the United States largest supplie r of goods imports in 2011. US goods imports from China totaled U.S. dollar 399 billion in 2011, a 9.4% increase from 2010 and up 299% since 2000. Imports from China into the United States accounted for 18% of overall US imports in 2010 (Office of the United State Trade Representative, 2012). A sharp reduction of US imports from China could therefore have a significant negative impact on Chinas economy, which heavily depends on exports into the United States for its economic growth. Moreover, in the case of China, economic growth is also seen as a vital source of political stability and therefore in the interest of the government. Consequently, it can be argued that the US and Chinese economies are mutually dependent  [3]  on each other, which, as a matter of fact, gives China very little leverage over US policy (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). The former US Treasury Secretary Lawrence Summers called the mutual damage which would occur to the US and Chinese economies the balance of financial terror (Dorn, 2008). For some time, this balance of financial terror as well as the global financial system has kept China off from exploiting their power position (Dorn, 2008). Nonetheless, regardless of the balance of financial terror, growing bilateral tensions over the US public debt between the United States and China can clearly be observed. For example, the government-controlled Chinese newspaper Xinhua News Agency expressed a lot of criticism on US economic policies regarding the US public debt situation: With its debt approximating its annual economic output, it is time for Washington to revisit the time-tested common sense that one should live within ones means (Xinhua News Agency, July 2011). The days when the debt-ridden Uncle Sam could leisurely squander unlimited overseas borrowing appeared to be numbered as its triple A-credit rating was slashed by Standard Poors (SP) for the first time on Friday. China, the largest creditor of the worlds sole superpower, has every right now to demand the United States to address its structural debt problems and ensure the safety of Chinas dollar assets (Xinhua News Agency, August 2011). To relieve further bilateral tensions between the two countries, China should pursue a more market-liberal path and the United States should abstain from implementing protectionist measures. Doing this, the US-China relationship should develop peacefully and global prosperity will continue. Consequently, the balance of financial terror would collapse and give way to free trade and capital freedom (Dorn, 2008). In conclusion, the main political issue from the perspective of the United States is not Chinas large holdings of US public debt per se, but rather the high US reliance on foreign capital in general and whether this reliance is sustainable in the future (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). Policymakers in the United States should therefore think about the medium- and long-run implications of the countrys high amount of public debt held by foreigners. To do that in an appropriate way, they have to take into account and to understand the economic and political relationships between the United States and its debt holders, with China leading the way. A first step to mitigate the problem is to launch political measures so that the United States increases its level of savings in the long-term in order to reduce the vulnerability to a possible shift away from US assets by foreign investors (Morrison and Labonte, 2012). The Role of U.S. Public Debt in the Global Economy Undoubtedly, the United States still plays an exceptional role in the global economy. First of all, the country is the largest economy in the world. Secondly, it clearly dominates the global monetary system: The United States capital markets are among the most liquid ones (Schuman, 2011) and the special status of the dollar as the worlds reserve currency has become an crucial aspect of Americas power, allowing the country to borrow effortlessly and maintain an assertive foreign policy (Warnock, 2010). In addition, the US dollar is the primary currency used in foreign exchange transactions and trade. Also, as already mentioned in the chapter before, countries such as China and Japan store their national wealth to a large extent in US public debt. The perception has always been that the United States has a safe haven status, meaning that when investors get nervous, they increase dollar-based assets, and especially also US public debt (Schuman, 2011). Having said all this, given the exc eptional status of the United States in the world economy, the global economic and political consequences of the development of US public debt are substantial. Increasing US public debt bears the risk of a fundamental change in the perception of the safe haven status of the United States. Schuman (2011) speculates on what would happen if this change in perception comes true  [4]  : US Treasury securities would be seen as riskier than before and would consequently lose their attractiveness. As a result, interest rates would increase in the United States, raising borrowing costs in the economy and making it more difficult for the US government to finance debt and budget deficits. This can potentially lead to a significant decrease in investments and consumption. The US dollar will presumably depreciate, which will devaluate currency reserves around the globe. All those effects taken together will have negative consequences on the growth of the US economy, lowering living standards for Americans and eventually leading to a slower growth of the world economy. To put it simple, a loss of confidence in the United States as a safe haven results in higher interest rates, which will automatically have negative consequences on the world economy (International Monetary Fund, 2012). Therefore, the exceptional role of the United States makes its public debt situation dangerous for the shape of the global economy due to the fact that overwhelming debt amounts can cause effects that potentially destabilize the world economy. In addition, the ten-year US Treasury bond has the status of the worlds risk-free asset, meaning that the United States is the basic standard by which risk in financial markets is assessed (Warnock, 2010). This is sometimes referred to as the risk-free standard and is a basic convention regularly used in all different kinds of valuations in the daily business world. In particular, the risk-free standard is an important measure in the context of corporate and asset valuation (Damodaran, 2008). Loosing the safe haven status of the United States as a possible consequence of the above-described developments means loosing the risk-free standard convention, resulting in global efficiency losses and higher risks of economic and financial fragmentation (Schuman, 2011). Although the United States exceptional status in the world economy makes its debt situation risky, that status obviously gives the country particular protection as well. A meaningful example of this protection is the warning of Standard Poors to downgrade the United States from its traditional prized AAA credit rating in April 2011 (Schuman, 2011): This warning was a strong signal that Standard Poors was not concerned about the special status of the US in the global economy, meaning that if the country is not able to get its debt situation under control, it will be confronted with a downgrade similar to those of Greece, Spain or Japan. However, financial market participants acted against what economic intuition and theory tells us. US Treasuries weakened immediately after Standard Poors announcement, a clear indication that investors were selling them. Nevertheless, they returned to their old strength shortly afterwards, suggesting that investors even bought US public debt after S tandard Poors warning instead of selling them to a large extent (Schuman, 2011). Moreover, some reactions of major US bondholders indicated that they are not concerned about the countrys financial condition. For example, at the time Japanese Finance Minister Yoshihiko Noda mentioned: [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] basically we continue to believe that US Treasuries are an attractive product for us (Channel NewsAsia, 2011). A further crucial point in the context of the role of US public debt in the global economy is the argument that US policymakers have been relying probably subconsciously on the exceptional status of the United States (Schuman, 2011).  [5]  The particular role of the US in the global economy leads to the outcome that the country does not have to face dangers other nations could never avoid. A political implication of this behavior is presumably that according to some critical authors and journalists the United States are one of the few heavily indebted developed economies that does not have a credible plan to control deficits and debt  [6]  (Schuman, 2011). To put it in simple words, US policymakers have possibly been banking on being like American International Group (AIG) or General Motors (GM) in America or UBS in Switzerland, acting as if the country is too big to fail  [7]  . In conclusion, one can state that a debt crisis in Portugal for example can potentially create uncertainty through world financial markets, and if a larger country such as Spain fell into crisis, this uncertainty could have destabilizing effects. But US public debt bears the risk of crashing the entire operating system of the global economy. Hen

Confocal Microscopy Lab Essay -- Ovarian Ring Canal Medical Technology

Confocal Microscopy Lab Confocal microscopy uses a laser that produces excitation light. This laser light reflects off of a dichroic mirror and then the laser light hits two mirrors that are mounted on motors. The mirrors then scan the laser light across the sample. Dye that is found in the sample then fluoresces (Weeks, 2003). Filamin was labeled with a red fluorescent label rhodamine (TRITC) and actin was labeled with the green fluorescent label fluoroscein (FITC) which was conjugated to the actin-binding fungal toxin phalloidin. The emitted light from the dyes passes back through the mirrors and passes through the dichroic mirror and is focuses into a pinhole. With confocal microscopy, a complete image of the sample is never seen. Only one point of the sample can be observed at a time. The amount of light that passes back through is detected by the microscope (Ladic, 1995). The intensity of the red light seen is proportional to the amount of filamin present and the intensity of the green ligh t seen is proportional to the amount of actin present in the sample of Drosophila melanogaster ovaries. Confocal microscopy is able to produce images that are very free from interference. The confocal pinhole allows the microscope to reject out of focus fluorescent light (Weeks, 2003). This means that the image comes from a thin section of the ovary sample. Many thin sections will be scanned through the sample; this allows a clean three dimensional image to be made. A confocal microscope has a few advantages over regular optical microscopes. Confocal microscopes have controllable depth of field, the elimination of image degrading information that is out of focus, and the ability to collect series of data from s... .../ladic/overview.html. Accessed 6 December 2004. Robinson, D.N., K. Cant and L. Cooley. 1994. "Morphogenesis of Drosophila ovarian ring canals." Development. 120, 2015-2025. Robinson, D.N, T.A. Smith-Leiker, N.S. Sokol, A.M. Hudson and L. Cooley. 1997. â€Å"Formation of the Drosophila ovarian ring canal inner rim depends on cheerio.† Genetics. 145, 1063-1072 Shilling, Kristen (David S. Richard). â€Å"Ovarian nurse cell ring canal formation in wild- type and insulin signaling mutant female Drosophila melanogaster.† Tilney, L.G., M.S. Tilney, and G.M. Guild. 1996. â€Å"Formation of actin filament bundles in the ring canals of developing Drosophila follicles.† The Journal of Cell Biology. 133, 61-74. Weeks, Eric. 2003. â€Å"How does a confocal microscope work?† Physics Department, Emory University. http://www.physics.emory.edu/~weeks/confocal/. Accessed 3 December 2004 Confocal Microscopy Lab Essay -- Ovarian Ring Canal Medical Technology Confocal Microscopy Lab Confocal microscopy uses a laser that produces excitation light. This laser light reflects off of a dichroic mirror and then the laser light hits two mirrors that are mounted on motors. The mirrors then scan the laser light across the sample. Dye that is found in the sample then fluoresces (Weeks, 2003). Filamin was labeled with a red fluorescent label rhodamine (TRITC) and actin was labeled with the green fluorescent label fluoroscein (FITC) which was conjugated to the actin-binding fungal toxin phalloidin. The emitted light from the dyes passes back through the mirrors and passes through the dichroic mirror and is focuses into a pinhole. With confocal microscopy, a complete image of the sample is never seen. Only one point of the sample can be observed at a time. The amount of light that passes back through is detected by the microscope (Ladic, 1995). The intensity of the red light seen is proportional to the amount of filamin present and the intensity of the green ligh t seen is proportional to the amount of actin present in the sample of Drosophila melanogaster ovaries. Confocal microscopy is able to produce images that are very free from interference. The confocal pinhole allows the microscope to reject out of focus fluorescent light (Weeks, 2003). This means that the image comes from a thin section of the ovary sample. Many thin sections will be scanned through the sample; this allows a clean three dimensional image to be made. A confocal microscope has a few advantages over regular optical microscopes. Confocal microscopes have controllable depth of field, the elimination of image degrading information that is out of focus, and the ability to collect series of data from s... .../ladic/overview.html. Accessed 6 December 2004. Robinson, D.N., K. Cant and L. Cooley. 1994. "Morphogenesis of Drosophila ovarian ring canals." Development. 120, 2015-2025. Robinson, D.N, T.A. Smith-Leiker, N.S. Sokol, A.M. Hudson and L. Cooley. 1997. â€Å"Formation of the Drosophila ovarian ring canal inner rim depends on cheerio.† Genetics. 145, 1063-1072 Shilling, Kristen (David S. Richard). â€Å"Ovarian nurse cell ring canal formation in wild- type and insulin signaling mutant female Drosophila melanogaster.† Tilney, L.G., M.S. Tilney, and G.M. Guild. 1996. â€Å"Formation of actin filament bundles in the ring canals of developing Drosophila follicles.† The Journal of Cell Biology. 133, 61-74. Weeks, Eric. 2003. â€Å"How does a confocal microscope work?† Physics Department, Emory University. http://www.physics.emory.edu/~weeks/confocal/. Accessed 3 December 2004

Falling into Insanity Essay -- Essays Papers

Falling into Insanity As readers of great novels, we are continuously examining and explaining the actions and thoughts of characters. Are we the only ones? Or do the characters actually analyze their own thoughts and actions as we do? In Goethe’s The Sorrows of Young Werther, the protagonist, Werther, tells the story of his love for Lotte and the ensuing hardships through letters to his friend and confidante, Wilhelm. Through various situations and excerpts from his letters, we see Werther simply gliding through life, not pondering the motivations for his thoughts and actions, or even questioning his own state-of-mind; the effects of this lack of self-awareness negatively affect him and eventually lead him to commit suicide. Throughout the novel, Werther never ponders the thoughts and motivations that cause him to first fall madly in love with Lotte, then become obsessed, and finally to commit suicide because he cannot be with her. He never really asks himself why he allows himself to spend so much time with her, why all aspects of his previous life no longer interest him, or why he cannot even hold a job. Near the start of his love obsession with Lotte, he believes that he must â€Å"spend every hour of the day with her†¦in order to prove to her at every moment that he is wholly devoted to her† (Goethe, 14-15). He doesn’t pay any attention to the fact that she is already engaged to another man; Werther simply cannot fathom that he would not try to make her fall as deeply in love with him as he is with her. It’s almost as if he knows he is going overboard with his affections for her, but he doesn’t care. Werther believes his love for Lotte knows no limits, and he n ever even thinks about the social restrictions on woo... ...e suffering and eventual death. Throughout his short time with Lotte, Werther falls more and more deeply in love with her, and consequently, falls further into madness. He never analyzes his own motivations for continuing allowing his love for Lotte to grow and he never examines the extent that it has affected his sanity. Werther finally goes completely insane after Lotte tells him he no longer can see her as often. He commits suicide, the ultimate manic sacrifice, as he realizes he cannot have Lotte. As readers, we constantly analyze character’s acts. By not pondering the motivations for his thoughts and actions, or even questioning his own sanity, Werther is deeply affected by his love in a negative fashion, eventually ending in his own suicide. Works Cited Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. The Sorrows of Young Werther. New York City: Vintage Books, 1990.

Safe Distances :: Personal Narrative Religion Papers

Safe Distances Evolution at its most basic is the process by which a species puts barriers between itself and extinction. Anytime a species finds a way to increase its individual organisms' ability to reproduce, it has put a little extra distance between the species and total annihilation. For example: the peacock's elaborate tail, which ensures his success in propagating his genes, also makes him an easy catch for predators. One might imagine that the peacock could simply have invested in a foreign sports car to attract the opposite sex. I was 15 the first time I made my own blood run. I was sitting in the crowded closet, feeling that iron-in-my-stomach sensation that had been with me more and more since my grandmother had died, since my father had started screaming so much, since my feelings for school had gone from run of the mill adolescent angst to extreme boredom, frustration, outrage over the absurdity of it all. I would sit some nights like a toddler in the darkness of my closet, morosely rehashing my grievances against life, lost in a forest of sweaters and skirts. I would brood, and think and will myself not to cry until the effort became too great and I'd give in and wring my hands and rain tears on my sneakers and sandals and sensible dress shoes in silence until the iron had dissolved enough that I could stand straight again. The Hebrew's relationship with God starts out as extremely simple and extremely personal. God chooses his favorites with frightening randomness, picking otherwise unremarkable second sons to succeed their morally ambiguous, but also chosen, fathers. God's actions in Genesis are often inexplicably random, even petty. God forbids his first human creation to eat a certain apple, and then puts a whole tree full of the forbidden fruit right in front of them. When they finally give in and taste test what they shouldn't have, Adam and Eve are banished from paradise and consigned to death. God's actions here seem cruel and unfair, or at the very least, unfathomable to human minds. We can't help but feel a little outrage and confusion over the events of Genesis. Why wasn't Lot's wife allowed to look back (19:26)? Why did God just up and slay Er (38:7)? How could Cain be allowed to live after killing his brother (4:15), when God was willing to kill all the children on earth with one gigantic flood in order to cleanse the earth of sin (6:13)?

Compare and Contrast the Ways in Which the ‘Natural Environment’ Essay

The natural environment is a key influence in cosmogonic and cosmologic conceptions of human beings as persons among Australian Aboriginal people and to a lesser extent Balinese people. Meyers (1987[1973]) asserts that personhood is socially generated and defined by culture; the conception of personhood in a society is intrinsic to the very nature and structure of human society and social behaviour universally. The environment in which a society is found has particular influence over the social behaviour, structure and interactions of its inhabitants, and impacts on daily life and ritual observances. The Australian Aboriginal understanding of human beings as persons is an amalgamation of cosmogonic and cosmologic concepts of the Dreaming and a â€Å"system of totemism† which govern the ‘social person’ and fluctuate according to variation in natural environment (Peterson, 1972:12). Conversely Balinese understanding of human beings as persons is a â€Å"depersonalizing† system, based on cosmologic concepts of cycles of reincarnation that influence naming orders, status, ceremony and religion, social structure, heavily constructed with a separation of human and animal and a domestication of the natural environment (Forge 1980, Geertz 1973). The differences arising between Australian Aboriginal and Balinese concepts of personhood are derived from variations in ecology, social organization and culture that stem from the distinctive diversity of their respective natural environments and cosmogonic and cosmologic conceptions. Australian Aboriginal understanding of human beings as persons is closely linked to an intimate social and cultural relationship with their natural environment, which stems from cosmogonic and cosmologic concepts of the Dreaming. Bodley (2000:31) explains the Dreaming answers basic existential, meaning of life questions and offers a way of life doctrine prescribing basic social categories and ritual activities, ascribing cultural meaning to the natural environment. The cosmogonic aspects of the Dreaming involve supernatural beings forming the land through their actions and wanderings, leaving trails then re-entering the earth to slumber. (Strehlow, 1978). Australian Aboriginal concepts of personhood stem from the cosmogonic notion that the person is a reincarnation of one of these supernatural ancestors or ancestresses. Strehlow (1978:20) asserts that according to reincarnation beliefs, some part of the ‘life’ left by the ancestor on their trail, could enter into the body of a human mother who crossed these trails, and could take on new life as her human infant. Strehlow exemplifies the Aranda doctrine of conception, and the possession of two souls by every human being, differing from animals in acquiring a second ‘life’ of the ancestor spirit that is immortal (1978:21). Thus Australian Aboriginal notions of personhood are linked inexplicably to the natural environment through place of conception and the identification with an ancestral place of the right patrilineal moiety where the second soul entered and made them a true person. This identification is in the form of a totem, giving the individual certain rights and ritual observances within that natural environment (Peterson 1972:16). Peterson (1972:12) describes the Australian Aboriginal social organisation, and thus concept of personhood, as derived from a â€Å"system of totemism†. The Australian Aboriginal totemic system is based upon cosmologic notions of the Dreaming, and is explicitly linked with conception beliefs. Strehlow asserts that the most important ramifications of conception and reincarnation beliefs of Australian Aboriginals were the totemic relationships that they established and the links they forge between the mortal man and the changeless forces of eternity (1978:24). Totem relations dictate social organisation and kinship, Bodley states that members of a â€Å"band† may be referred to as ‘people of’, whereas individuals may have an affiliation and rights within several countries (2000:37). Conception away from the father’s estate in no way weakens the child’s links and rights in the father’s clan, but rather bestows additional rights and privileges on the estate that he was conceived (Peterson 1972:17). Conception is in terms of â€Å"the water† or spiritual well you come from, a clan estate is the â€Å"bone country†, indicating that the link with the father and patrilineal natural environment has a physical expression in the bones of a person’s body (Peterson 1972:17). Conception and reincarnation beliefs ensure that Central Australian Aboriginal communities were constituted of peoples that belonged o a variety of totems and lands, and that each individual had a personal totem that determined the nature of his rights and duties, and ultimately the understanding of his personhood (Strehlow 1978:26). In contrast to the close identification of Australian Aboriginals with their natural environment, Forge (1980) asserts the Baline se view nature as â€Å"fundamentally fanged and hairy†. This notion is replicated in traditional artwork as consistent representation of animals with prominent teeth arranged in a way that is not found in the natural environment. Forge (1980:6) suggests this arrangement of teeth is part of Balinese culture, highlighting the Balinese aversion to animalism and a desire to emphasize the distinction between animalism and humanity. Furthermore ritual observance of tooth-filing and blackening, of the front six teeth symbolic of undesirable passions, between puberty and marriage is explicitly said to diminish the similarity between man and animal and produce a â€Å"real human† (Forge 1980:239). Forge (1980:7) asserts â€Å"in Bali nature does not produce mankind, even in physical form; the body needs cultural modification to reach true humanity†. Thus the Balinese have an almost tooth-idiom, Forge (1980:12) suggest the Balinese have culturally created a contrast between modified human teeth and the teeth of animal and supernatural beings that symbolize uncontrolled power. Additionally, the Balinese view the forest as an intermediate zone between the world of men, culture and cultivation, and the world of gods, and inhabitants of the forest, good and bad are seen as aspects of humanity with which a person must come to terms with in order to be in control and realize personhood (Forge 1980:15). Consequently the Balinese view their natural environment as power needing to be remade in a cultural and human form through domestication; through control the Balinese human becomes a person. The Balinese understanding of persons as human beings in social organization is derived from a complex system of naming orders that are essentially depersonalizing (Geertz 1973). Geertz (1973:376) states that in Balinese cosmology the stages in human life are not conceived in terms of the process of aging biologically, to which bares little importance culturally, but of social regenesis. Rather than place identifying names or personal names, birth order names and more so teknonyms, e. g. ‘father-of’, are the primary means of identification in Balinese society, furthering Geertz assertion of a depersonalizing social order where enormous value is placed a person’s procreation (1973). Balinese life is not only irregularly punctuated by frequent holidays, but by frequent temple celebrations which involve only those who are birth members of the temple (Geertz 1973:395). Most individuals belong to half a dozen temples or more, thus Balinese life is culturally cross-cutting, dominated by ritual observances and auspicious calendar days (Geertz 1973:396). In terms of the significance of observances of Balinese calendars to the natural environment, the lunar-solar calendar is useful in agricultural contexts so that planting and harvesting are regulated and control of the natural environment is actualized (Geertz 1973:398). Temples have symbolic connection with agriculture and fertility and celebrate the reception of gods according to the calendar (Geertz 1973:398). The Balinese conception of personhood is influenced by shared obligations at a given temple, common residence in hamlets or bandjar and ownership of rice land in an irrigation society (Geertz 1959). â€Å"Bali is a land of temples†, and membership is cross-cutting of these groups in Balinese society (Geertz 1959:994). Temple worship is significant in the concept of personhood and also for ritual observance of fertility and agricultural or natural environment. The irrigation society or subak regulates all matters to do with the cultivation of wet rice, and members are organized according to location to a single water source (Geertz 1959:995). The organization of the Balinese irrigation system within their natural environment provides the context within which Balinese agricultural activities are organized to control and domesticate the natural environment. The natural environment influences Australian Aboriginal and Balinese understandings of personhood in varied ways, as a product of varying cosmogonic and cosmologic beliefs and practices. As Strehlow (1978) asserts, Australian Aboriginal cosmogony and cosmology of their natural environment significantly influences notions of personhood through conception and reincarnation beliefs and ancestral spirits. Similarly Geertz (1973) discusses the impact of reincarnation beliefs on the cosmologic understanding of humans as persons as depersonalizing contemporaries among he Balinese. However, among the Balinese naming orders are transcendent of place, whereas naming of Aboriginal Australians is distinctly tied to place and natural environment in totemic systems. It is apparent that Australian Aboriginal cosmogony and cosmology of the Dreaming and the conception of personhood in society is tied intrinsically to the natural environment. Conversely, the Balinese social organization is largely separate from a preoccupation with the natural environment, and is focused on control and an emphasis on the difference between animalism and humanity. Such divergent reactions to the natural environment are a direct product of variations in ecological surrounds; the totemic identification with the land of the Australian Aboriginals is due to an inherent need to harmonize with the harsh climate. Balinese assertions of domestication and strict boundaries between human and animal are a product of fear of the dangers of the forest. In conclusion, there is no single universal conception of personhood, and the natural environment impacts upon the reactionary organization of a society to either live with or control through domestication, Australian Aboriginal and Balinese respectively. The environment in which a society is found has particular influence over the social behaviour, structure and interactions of its inhabitants, and impacts on daily life and ritual observances, as seen in both the Australian Aboriginal and Balinese people. The different cultural constructions of personhood around the globe cannot be interpreted in terms of narratives of the progressive emergence, either of rationality or of individuality, in terms of European progression, but rather as singular expressions within varying universal social behaviour and organization.